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Hydrochloric acid or muriatic acid is a colorless inorganic chemical system with the formula H
₂O:HCl. Hydrochloric acid has a distinctive pungent smell. It is classified as strongly acidic and can attack the skin over a wide composition range, since the hydrogen chloride completely dissociates in aqueous solution.

Hydrochloric acid is the simplest chlorine-based acid system containing water. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride and water, and a variety of other chemical species, including hydronium and chloride ions. It is an important chemical reagent and industrial chemical, used in the production of polyvinyl chloride for plastic. In households, diluted hydrochloric acid is often used as a descaling agent. In the food industry, hydrochloric acid is used as a food additive and in the production of gelatin. Hydrochloric acid is also used in leather processing.

Hydrochloric acid was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year 800 AD.^[7][8] It was historically called acidum salis and spirits of salt because it was produced from rock salt and 'green vitriol' (Iron(II) sulfate) (by Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century) and later from the chemically similar common salt and sulfuric acid (by Johann Rudolph Glauber in the 17th century). Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius. Later, it was used by chemists such as Glauber, Priestley, and Davy in their scientific research. Unless pressurized or cooled, hydrochloric acid will turn into a gas if there is around 60% or less of water. Hydrochloric acid is also known as hydronium chloride, in contrast to its anhydrous parent known as hydrogen chloride, or dry HCl.

ACS Study Guide - Download as Word Doc (.doc), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online. Scribd is the world's largest social reading and publishing site. Search Search. American Chemical Society: Chemistry for Life. 2018 Highlights of ACS Achievements. 2018 proved to be a year of significant progress and great accomplishments for ACS on many fronts. Hi, I'm looking for the ACS Physical Chemistry guide. I'm starting a PhD program in September and I'd like to study using the ACS guides for the. Library genesis will be the easiest way to get a free one. There's another. Organic Chemistry ACS Exam Prep - Welcome to Clark College. 70 questions. In the “practice” problems I have. ACS General Chemistry Exam Official Study. To download free practice exam #1 chemistry 5.12.

• 5Production
• 6Applications

Etymology[edit]

Are there any torrent or pdf download links for this? I really don't want to have to buy it. Jump to content. Get an ad-free experience with special benefits, and directly support Reddit. Get reddit premium. Does anyone have a link to download Preparing for your ACS exam in general chemistry?

Hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirits of salt or acidum salis (salt acid). Both names are still used, especially in other languages, such as German: Salzsäure, Dutch: Zoutzuur, Swedish: Saltsyra, Turkish: Tuz Ruhu, Polish: kwas solny, Bulgarian: солна киселина, Russian: соляная кислота, Chinese: 鹽酸, Korean: 염산, and Taiwanese: iâm-sng. Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air.

The old (pre-systematic) name muriatic acid has the same origin (muriatic means 'pertaining to brine or salt', hence muriate means hydrochloride), and this name is still sometimes used.^[1][9] The name hydrochloric acid was coined by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1814.^[10]

History[edit]

Hydrochloric acid has been an important and frequently used chemical from early history and was discovered by the alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan around the year 800 AD.^[11][8]

Aqua regia, a mixture consisting of hydrochloric and nitric acids, prepared by dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid, was described in the works of Pseudo-Geber, a 13th-century European alchemist.^{[12][13][14][15][16]} Other references suggest that the first mention of aqua regia is in Byzantine manuscripts dating to the end of the 13th century.^{[17][18][19][20]}

Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, who prepared it by heating salt in clay crucibles.^[21] Other authors claim that pure hydrochloric acid was first discovered by the German Benedictine monkBasil Valentine in the 15th century,^[22] when he heated common salt and green vitriol,^[23] whereas others argue that there is no clear reference to the preparation of pure hydrochloric acid until the end of the 16th century.^[17]

In the 17th century, Johann Rudolf Glauber from Karlstadt am Main, Germany used sodium chloride salt and sulfuric acid for the preparation of sodium sulfate in the Mannheim process, releasing hydrogen chloride gas. Joseph Priestley of Leeds, England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772,^[24] and by 1808 Humphry Davy of Penzance, England had proved that the chemical composition included hydrogen and chlorine.^[25]

During the Industrial Revolution in Europe, demand for alkaline substances increased. A new industrial process developed by Nicolas Leblanc of Issoudun, France enabled cheap large-scale production of sodium carbonate (soda ash). In this Leblanc process, common salt is converted to soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, releasing hydrogen chloride as a by-product. Until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legislation in other countries, the excess HCl was vented into the air. After the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale.^[14][26]

In the 20th century, the Leblanc process was effectively replaced by the Solvay process without a hydrochloric acid by-product. Since hydrochloric acid was already fully settled as an important chemical in numerous applications, the commercial interest initiated other production methods, some of which are still used today. After the year 2000, hydrochloric acid is mostly made by absorbing by-product hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production.^[14][26][27]

Since 1988, hydrochloric acid has been listed as a Table II precursor under the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances because of its use in the production of heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine.^[28]

Structure and reactions[edit]

Hydrochloric acid is the salt of hydronium ion, H₃O⁺ and chloride. It is usually prepared by treating HCl with water.^[29][30]

${\displaystyle \text{HCl}+{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}⟶{\text{H}}_3^{}{\text{O}}^{+}+{\text{Cl}}^{-}}$

However, the speciation of hydrochloric acid is more complicated than this simple equation implies. The structure of bulk water is infamously complex, and likewise, the formula H₃O⁺ is also a gross oversimplification of the true nature of the solvated proton, H⁺_(aq), present in hydrochloric acid. A combined IR, Raman, X-ray and neutron diffraction study of concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid revealed that the primary form of H⁺_(aq) in these solutions is H₅O₂⁺, which, along with the chloride anion, is hydrogen-bonded to neighboring water molecules in several different ways. (In H₅O₂⁺, the proton is sandwiched midway between two water molecules at 180°). The author suggests that H₃O⁺ may become more important in dilute HCl solutions.^[31] (See Hydronium for further discussion of this issue.)

Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, since it is completely dissociated in water.^[29][30] It can therefore be used to prepare salts containing the Cl^– anion called chlorides.

As a strong acid, hydrogen chloride has a large K_a. Theoretical attempts to assign the pK_a of hydrogen chloride have been made, with the most recent estimate being −5.9.^[5] However, it is important to distinguish between hydrogen chloride gas and hydrochloric acid. Due to the leveling effect, except when highly concentrated and behavior deviates from ideality, hydrochloric acid (aqueous HCl) is only as acidic as the strongest proton donor available in water, the aquated proton (popularly known as 'hydronium ion'). When chloride salts such as NaCl are added to aqueous HCl, they have only a minor effect on pH, indicating that Cl⁻ is a very weak conjugate base and that HCl is fully dissociated in aqueous solution. Dilute solutions of HCl have a pH close to that predicted by assuming full dissociation into hydrated H⁺ and Cl⁻.^[32]

Of the six common strong mineral acids in chemistry, hydrochloric acid is the monoprotic acid least likely to undergo an interfering oxidation-reduction reaction. It is one of the least hazardous strong acids to handle; despite its acidity, it consists of the non-reactive and non-toxic chloride ion. Intermediate-strength hydrochloric acid solutions are quite stable upon storage, maintaining their concentrations over time. These attributes, plus the fact that it is available as a pure reagent, make hydrochloric acid an excellent acidifying reagent.

Hydrochloric acid is the preferred acid in titration for determining the amount of bases. Strong acid titrants give more precise results due to a more distinct endpoint. Azeotropic, or 'constant-boiling', hydrochloric acid (roughly 20.2%) can be used as a primary standard in quantitative analysis, although its exact concentration depends on the atmospheric pressure when it is prepared.^[33]

Hydrochloric acid is frequently used in chemical analysis to prepare ('digest') samples for analysis. Concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolves many metals and forms oxidized metal chlorides and hydrogen gas. It also reacts with basic compounds such as calcium carbonate or copper(II) oxide, forming the dissolved chlorides that can be analyzed.^[29][30]

Physical properties[edit]

Physical properties of hydrochloric acid, such as boiling and melting points, density, and pH, depend on the concentration or molarity of HCl in the aqueous solution. They range from those of water at very low concentrations approaching 0% HCl to values for fuming hydrochloric acid at over 40% HCl.^[29][30][36]

Hydrochloric acid as the binary (two-component) mixture of HCl and H₂O has a constant-boiling azeotrope at 20.2% HCl and 108.6 °C (227 °F). There are four constant-crystallizationeutectic points for hydrochloric acid, between the crystal form of HCl·H₂O (68% HCl), HCl·2H₂O (51% HCl), HCl·3H₂O (41% HCl), HCl·6H₂O (25% HCl), and ice (0% HCl). There is also a metastable eutectic point at 24.8% between ice and the HCl·3H₂O crystallization.^[36]

Production[edit]

Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water. Hydrogen chloride can be generated in many ways, and thus several precursors to hydrochloric acid exist. The large-scale production of hydrochloric acid is almost always integrated with the industrial scale production of other chemicals.

Industrial market[edit]

Hydrochloric acid is produced in solutions up to 38% HCl (concentrated grade). Higher concentrations up to just over 40% are chemically possible, but the evaporation rate is then so high that storage and handling require extra precautions, such as pressurization and cooling. Bulk industrial-grade is therefore 30% to 35%, optimized to balance transport efficiency and product loss through evaporation. In the United States, solutions of between 20% and 32% are sold as muriatic acid. Solutions for household purposes in the US, mostly cleaning, are typically 10% to 12%, with strong recommendations to dilute before use. In the United Kingdom, where it is sold as 'Spirits of Salt' for domestic cleaning, the potency is the same as the US industrial grade.^[14] In other countries, such as Italy, hydrochloric acid for domestic or industrial cleaning is sold as 'Acido Muriatico', and its concentration ranges from 5% to 32%.

Major producers worldwide include Dow Chemical at 2 million metric tons annually (2 Mt/year), calculated as HCl gas, Georgia Gulf Corporation, Tosoh Corporation, Akzo Nobel, and Tessenderlo at 0.5 to 1.5 Mt/year each. Total world production, for comparison purposes expressed as HCl, is estimated at 20 Mt/year, with 3 Mt/year from direct synthesis, and the rest as secondary product from organic and similar syntheses. By far, most hydrochloric acid is consumed captively by the producer. The open world market size is estimated at 5 Mt/year.^[14]

Applications[edit]

Hydrochloric acid is a strong inorganic acid that is used in many industrial processes such as refining metal. The application often determines the required product quality.^[14]

Pickling of steel[edit]

One of the most important applications of hydrochloric acid is in the pickling of steel, to remove rust or iron oxide scale from iron or steel before subsequent processing, such as extrusion, rolling, galvanizing, and other techniques.^[14][27] Technical quality HCl at typically 18% concentration is the most commonly used pickling agent for the pickling of carbon steel grades.

${\displaystyle {\text{Fe}}_2^{}{\text{O}}_3^{}+\text{Fe}+6\text{HCl}⟶3{\text{FeCl}}_2^{}+3{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$

The spent acid has long been reused as iron(II) chloride (also known as ferrous chloride) solutions, but high heavy-metal levels in the pickling liquor have decreased this practice.

The steel pickling industry has developed hydrochloric acid regeneration processes, such as the spray roaster or the fluidized bed HCl regeneration process, which allow the recovery of HCl from spent pickling liquor. The most common regeneration process is the pyrohydrolysis process, applying the following formula:^[14]

${\displaystyle 4{\text{FeCl}}_2^{}+4{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}+{\text{O}}_2^{}⟶8\text{HCl}+2{\text{Fe}}_2^{}{\text{O}}_3^{}}$

By recuperation of the spent acid, a closed acid loop is established.^[27] The iron(III) oxide by-product of the regeneration process is valuable, used in a variety of secondary industries.^[14]

Production of organic compounds[edit]

Another major use of hydrochloric acid is in the production of organic compounds, such as vinyl chloride and dichloroethane for PVC. This is often captive use, consuming locally produced hydrochloric acid that never actually reaches the open market. Other organic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include bisphenol A for polycarbonate, activated carbon, and ascorbic acid, as well as numerous pharmaceutical products.^[27]

${\displaystyle 2{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{C}={\text{CH}}_2^{}+4\text{HCl}+{\text{O}}_2^{}⟶2{\text{ClCH}}_2^{}{\text{CH}}_2^{}\text{Cl}+2{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$ (dichloroethane by oxychlorination)

Production of inorganic compounds[edit]

Numerous products can be produced with hydrochloric acid in normal acid-base reactions, resulting in inorganic compounds. These include water treatment chemicals such as iron(III) chloride and polyaluminium chloride (PAC).

${\displaystyle {\text{Fe}}_2^{}{\text{O}}_3^{}+6\text{HCl}⟶2{\text{FeCl}}_3^{}+3{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$ (iron(III) chloride from magnetite)

Both iron(III) chloride and PAC are used as flocculation and coagulation agents in sewage treatment, drinking water production, and paper production.

Other inorganic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include road application salt calcium chloride, nickel(II) chloride for electroplating, and zinc chloride for the galvanizing industry and battery production.^[27]

${\displaystyle {\text{CaCO}}_3^{}+2\text{HCl}⟶{\text{CaCl}}_2^{}+{\text{CO}}_2^{}+{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$ (calcium chloride from limestone)

pH control and neutralization[edit]

Hydrochloric acid can be used to regulate the acidity (pH) of solutions.

${\displaystyle {\text{OH}}^{-}+\text{HCl}⟶{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}+{\text{Cl}}^{-}}$

In industry demanding purity (food, pharmaceutical, drinking water), high-quality hydrochloric acid is used to control the pH of process water streams. In less-demanding industry, technical quality hydrochloric acid suffices for neutralizing waste streams and swimming pool pH control.^[27]

Regeneration of ion exchangers[edit]

High-quality hydrochloric acid is used in the regeneration of ion exchange resins. Cation exchange is widely used to remove ions such as Na⁺ and Ca²⁺ from aqueous solutions, producing demineralized water. The acid is used to rinse the cations from the resins.^[14] Na⁺ is replaced with H⁺ and Ca²⁺ with 2 H⁺.

Ion exchangers and demineralized water are used in all chemical industries, drinking water production, and many food industries.^[14]

Other[edit]

Hydrochloric acid is used for a large number of small-scale applications, such as leather processing, purification of common salt, household cleaning,^[37] and building construction.^[27]Oil production may be stimulated by injecting hydrochloric acid into the rock formation of an oil well, dissolving a portion of the rock, and creating a large-pore structure. Oil well acidizing is a common process in the North Sea oil production industry.^[14]

Hydrochloric acid has been used for dissolving calcium carbonate, i.e. such things as de-scaling kettles and for cleaning mortar off brickwork, but it is a hazardous liquid which must be used with care. When used on brickwork the reaction with the mortar only continues until the acid has all been converted, producing calcium chloride, carbon dioxide, and water:

${\displaystyle {\text{CaCO}}_3^{}+2\text{HCl}⟶{\text{CaCl}}_2^{}+{\text{CO}}_2^{}+{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$

Many chemical reactions involving hydrochloric acid are applied in the production of food, food ingredients, and food additives. Typical products include aspartame, fructose, citric acid, lysine, hydrolyzed vegetable protein as food enhancer, and in gelatin production. Food-grade (extra-pure) hydrochloric acid can be applied when needed for the final product.^[14][27]

Presence in living organisms[edit]

Gastric acid is one of the main secretions of the stomach. It consists mainly of hydrochloric acid and acidifies the stomach content to a pH of 1 to 2.^[38][39]

Chloride (Cl⁻) and hydrogen (H⁺) ions are secreted separately in the stomach fundus region at the top of the stomach by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa into a secretory network called canaliculi before it enters the stomach lumen.^[40]

Gastric acid acts as a barrier against microorganisms to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food. Its low pH denaturesproteins and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by digestive enzymes such as pepsin. The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin by self-cleavage. After leaving the stomach, the hydrochloric acid of the chyme is neutralized in the duodenum by sodium bicarbonate.^[38]

The stomach itself is protected from the strong acid by the secretion of a thick mucus layer, and by secretin induced buffering with sodium bicarbonate. Heartburn or peptic ulcers can develop when these mechanisms fail. Drugs of the antihistaminic and proton pump inhibitor classes can inhibit the production of acid in the stomach, and antacids are used to neutralize excessive existing acid.^[38][41]

Safety[edit]

Concentrated hydrochloric acid (fuming hydrochloric acid) forms acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution have a corrosive effect on human tissue, with the potential to damage respiratory organs, eyes, skin, and intestines irreversibly. Upon mixing hydrochloric acid with common oxidizing chemicals, such as sodium hypochlorite (bleach, NaClO) or potassium permanganate (KMnO₄), the toxic gas chlorine is produced.

${\displaystyle \text{NaClO}+2\text{HCl}⟶{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}+\text{NaCl}+{\text{Cl}}_2^{}}$

${\displaystyle 2{\text{KMnO}}_4^{}+16\text{HCl}⟶2{\text{MnCl}}_2^{}+8{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}+2\text{KCl}+5{\text{Cl}}_2^{}}$

${\displaystyle {\text{PbO}}_2^{}+4\text{HCl}⟶{\text{PbCl}}_2^{}+{\text{Cl}}_2^{}+2{\text{H}}_2^{}\text{O}}$

Personal protective equipment such as latex gloves, protective eye goggles, and chemical-resistant clothing and shoes will minimize risks when handling hydrochloric acid. The United States Environmental Protection Agency rates and regulates hydrochloric acid as a toxic substance.^[43]

The UN number or DOT number is 1789. This number will be displayed on a placard on the container.

See also[edit]

• Chloride, inorganic salts of hydrochloric acid
• Hydrochloride, organic salts of hydrochloric acid

References[edit]

1. ^ ^ab'Hydrochloric Acid'. Archived from the original on 15 October 2010. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
2. ^'spirits of salt'. Retrieved 29 May 2012.
3. ^Henri A. Favre; Warren H. Powell, eds. (2014). Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry: IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013. Cambridge: The Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 131.
4. ^'Hydrochloric acid_msds'.
5. ^ ^abTrummal, Aleksander; Lipping, Lauri; Kaljurand, Ivari; Koppel, Ilmar A.; Leito, Ivo (2016-05-06). 'Acidity of Strong Acids in Water and Dimethyl Sulfoxide'. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 120 (20): 3663–3669. doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.6b02253. ISSN1089-5639. PMID27115918.
6. ^ ^abcSigma-Aldrich Co., Hydrochloric acid. Retrieved on 2017-11-29.
7. ^'Human Metabolome Database: Showing metabocard for Hydrochloric acid (HMDB0002306)'. www.hmdb.ca. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
8. ^ ^abPubchem. 'hydrochloric acid'. pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
9. ^'Muriatic Acid'(PDF). PPG Industries. 2005. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
10. ^Gay-Lussac (1814) 'Mémoire sur l'iode' (Memoir on iodine), Annales de Chemie, 91 : 5–160. From page 9:' … mais pour les distinguer, je propose d'ajouter au mot spécifique de l'acide que l'on considère, le mot générique de hydro; de sorte que le combinaisons acide de hydrogène avec le chlore, l'iode, et le soufre porteraient le nom d'acide hydrochlorique, d'acide hydroiodique, et d'acide hydrosulfurique; … ' ( … but in order to distinguish them, I propose to add to the specific suffix of the acid being considered, the general prefix hydro, so that the acidic combinations of hydrogen with chlorine, iodine, and sulfur will bear the name hydrochloric acid, hydroiodic acid, and hydrosulfuric acid; … )
11. ^'Human Metabolome Database: Showing metabocard for Hydrochloric acid (HMDB0002306)'. www.hmdb.ca. Retrieved 2017-11-04.
12. ^Bauer, Hugo (2009). A history of chemistry. BiblioBazaar, LLC. p. 31. ISBN978-1-103-35786-4.
13. ^Karpenko, V.; Norris, J.A. (2001). 'Vitriol in the history of chemistry'(PDF). Chem. Listy. 96: 997.
14. ^ ^{abcdefghijklm}'Hydrochloric Acid'. Chemicals Economics Handbook. SRI International. 2001. pp. 733.4000A–733.3003F.
15. ^Norton, S. (2008). 'A Brief History of Potable Gold'. Molecular Interventions. 8 (3): 120–3. doi:10.1124/mi.8.3.1. PMID18693188.
16. ^Thompson, C. J. S. (2002). 'Alchemy and Alchemists' (Reprint of the edition published by George G. Harrap and Co., London, 1932 ed.). Dover Publications, Inc., Mineola, NY: 61, 18.
17. ^ ^abForbes, Robert James (1970). A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal. BRILL. ISBN978-90-04-00617-1.
18. ^Myers, R. L. (2007). The 100 most important chemical compounds: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 141. ISBN978-0-313-33758-1.
19. ^Datta, N. C. (2005). The story of chemistry. Universities Press. p. 40. ISBN978-81-7371-530-3.
20. ^Pereira, Jonathan (1854). The elements of materia medica and therapeutics, Volume 1. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 387.
21. ^Leicester, Henry Marshall (1971). The historical background of chemistry. Courier Dover Publications. p. 99. ISBN978-0-486-61053-5. Retrieved 19 August 2010.
22. ^Waite, A. E. (1992). Secret Tradition in Alchemy (public document ed.). Kessinger Publishing.
23. ^Von Meyer, Ernst Sigismund (1891). A History of Chemistry from Earliest Times to the Present Day. London, New York, Macmillan. p. 51.
24. ^Priestley, Joseph (1772). 'Observations on different kinds of air [i.e., gases]'. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 62: 147–264 (234–244). doi:10.1098/rstl.1772.0021.
25. ^Davy, Humphry (1808). 'Electro-chemical researches, on the decomposition of the earths; with observations on the metals obtained from the alkaline earths, and on the amalgam procured from ammonia'. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 98: 333–370. doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0023. p. 343: When potassium was heated in muriatic acid gas [i.e., gaseous hydrogen chloride], as dry as it could be obtained by common chemical means, there was a violent chemical action with ignition; and when the potassium was in sufficient quantity, the muriatic acid gas wholly disappeared, and from one-third to one-fourth of its volume of hydrogene was evolved, and muriate of potash [i.e., potassium chloride] was formed. (The reaction was: 2HCl + 2K → 2KCl + H₂)
26. ^ ^abAftalion, Fred (1991). A History of the International Chemical Industry. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0-8122-1297-6.
27. ^ ^abcdefghGreenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 946–48. ISBN978-0-08-037941-8.
28. ^'List of precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances under international control'(PDF) (Annex to Form D ('Red List')) (Eleventh ed.). International Narcotics Control Board. January 2007. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2008-02-27.
29. ^ ^abcdLide, David (2000). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN978-0-8493-0481-1.
30. ^ ^abcdPerry, R.; Green D.; Maloney J. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (6th ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN978-0-07-049479-4.
31. ^Agmon, Noam (January 1998). 'Structure of Concentrated HCl Solutions'. The Journal of Physical Chemistry A. 102 (1): 192–199. CiteSeerX10.1.1.78.3695. doi:10.1021/jp970836x. ISSN1089-5639.
32. ^McCarty, Christopher G.; Vitz, Ed (May 2006). 'pH Paradoxes: Demonstrating That It Is Not True That pH ≡ −log[H⁺]'. Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (5): 752. doi:10.1021/ed083p752. ISSN0021-9584.
33. ^Mendham, J.; Denney, R. C.; Barnes, J. D.; Thomas, M. J. K.; Denney, R. C.; Thomas, M. J. K. (2000). Vogel's Quantitative Chemical Analysis (6th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-582-22628-9.
34. ^'Systemnummer 6 Chlor'. Gmelins Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie. Chemie Berlin. 1927.
35. ^'Systemnummer 6 Chlor, Ergänzungsband Teil B – Lieferung 1'. Gmelins Handbuch der Anorganischen Chemie. Chemie Weinheim. 1968.
36. ^ ^abAspen Properties. binary mixtures modeling software (calculations by Akzo Nobel Engineering ed.). Aspen Technology. 2002–2003.
37. ^Simhon, Rachel (13 September 2003). 'Household plc: really filthy bathroom'. The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
38. ^ ^abcMaton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-981176-0.
39. ^Haas, Elson. 'Digestive Aids: Hydrochloric acid'. healthy.net.
40. ^Arthur, C.; Guyton, M. D.; Hall, John E. (2000). Textbook of Medical Physiology (10th ed.). W.B. Saunders Company. ISBN978-0-7216-8677-6.
41. ^Bowen, R. (18 March 2003). 'Control and Physiologic Effects of Secretin'. Colorado State University. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
42. ^'Council Directive 67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances'. EUR-lex. Retrieved 2 September 2008.
43. ^'HCl score card'. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 12 September 2007.

External links[edit]

• Hydrogen chloride (chemical compound) at the Encyclopædia Britannica
• Hydrochloric Acid – Part One and Hydrochloric Acid – Part Two at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
• Calculators: surface tensions, and densities, molarities and molalities of aqueous HCl

General safety information

Pollution information

A polymer (/ˈpɒlɪmər/;^[3][4] Greek poly-, 'many' + -mer, 'part') is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits.^[5] Due to their broad range of properties,^[6] both synthetic and natural polymers play essential and ubiquitous roles in everyday life.^[7] Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small moleculecompounds produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals. The terms polymer and resin are often synonymous with plastic.

The term 'polymer' derives from the Greek word πολύς (polus, meaning 'many, much') and μέρος (meros, meaning 'part'), and refers to a molecule whose structure is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative molecular mass and attendant properties.^[2] The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass.^[2] The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the modern IUPAC definition.^[8][9] The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger,^[10] who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this hypothesis.^[11]

Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science (which includes polymer chemistry and polymer physics). Historically, products arising from the linkage of repeating units by covalentchemical bonds have been the primary focus of polymer science; emerging important areas of the science now focus on non-covalent links. Polyisoprene of latexrubber is an example of a natural/biological polymer, and the polystyrene of styrofoam is an example of a synthetic polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i.e., proteins (polyamides), nucleic acids (polynucleotides), and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e.g., isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small lipidic molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein.^[12]

The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains.

• 2Synthesis
• 3Properties
  • 3.2Microstructure
  • 3.3Morphology
  • 3.4Mechanical properties
  • 3.6Phase behavior
• 6Degradation

Common examples

Polymers are of two types: naturally occurring and synthetic or man made.

Natural polymeric materials such as hemp, shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of other natural polymers exist, such as cellulose, which is the main constituent of wood and paper.

The list of synthetic polymers, roughly in order of worldwide demand, includes polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, synthetic rubber, phenol formaldehyde resin (or Bakelite), neoprene, nylon, polyacrylonitrile, PVB, silicone, and many more. More than 330 million tons of these polymers are made every year (2015).^[13]

Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a polymer used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene ('polythene' in British English), whose repeating unit is based on ethylenemonomer. Many other structures do exist; for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also commonly present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides (in glycosidic bonds), and DNA (in phosphodiester bonds).

Synthesis

Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This happens in the polymerization of PET polyester. The monomers are terephthalic acid (HOOC—C₆H₄—COOH) and ethylene glycol (HO—CH₂—CH₂—OH) but the repeating unit is —OC—C₆H₄—COO—CH₂—CH₂—O—, which corresponds to the combination of the two monomers with the loss of two water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue.

Laboratory synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization.^[14] The essential difference between the two is that in chain growth polymerization, monomers are added to the chain one at a time only,^[15] such as in polyethylene, whereas in step-growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly,^[16] such as in polyester. Newer methods, such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic polymerization reactions may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of biopolymers, especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.

Biological synthesis

There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides.In living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA catalyzed by DNA polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated processes to transcribe genetic information from the DNA to RNA and subsequently translate that information to synthesize the specified protein from amino acids. The protein may be modified further following translation in order to provide appropriate structure and functioning. There are other biopolymers such as rubber, suberin, melanin and lignin.

Modification of natural polymers

Naturally occurring polymers such as cotton, starch and rubber were familiar materials for years before synthetic polymers such as polyethene and perspex appeared on the market. Many commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of nitric acid and cellulose to form nitrocellulose and the formation of vulcanized rubber by heating natural rubber in the presence of sulfur.Ways in which polymers can be modified include oxidation, cross-linking and endcapping.

Especially in the production of polymers the gas separation by membranes has acquired increasing importance in the petrochemical industry and is now a relatively well-established unit operation.The process of polymer degassing is necessary to suit polymer for extrusion and pelletizing, increasing safety, environmental, and product quality aspects. Nitrogen is generally used for this purpose, resulting in a vent gas primarily composed of monomers and nitrogen.^[17]

Properties

Polymer properties are broadly divided into several classes based on the scale at which the property is defined as well as upon its physical basis.^[18] The most basic property of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. A second set of properties, known as microstructure, essentially describes the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. These basic structural properties play a major role in determining bulk physical properties of the polymer, which describe how the polymer behaves as a continuous macroscopic material. Chemical properties, at the nano-scale, describe how the chains interact through various physical forces. At the macro-scale, they describe how the bulk polymer interacts with other chemicals and solvents.

Monomers and repeat units

The identity of the repeat units (monomer residues, also known as 'mers') comprising a polymer is its first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of monomer residues comprising the polymer. Polymers which contain only a single type of repeat unit are known as homopolymers, while polymers containing two or more types of repeat units are known as copolymers.^[19]Terpolymers contain three types of repeat units.^[20]

Poly(styrene) is composed only of styrene monomer residues, and is classified as a homopolymer. Ethylene-vinyl acetate contains more than one variety of repeat unit and is a copolymer. Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of different but structurally related monomer residues; for example, polynucleotides such as DNA are composed of four types of nucleotide subunits.

A polymer molecule containing ionizable subunits is known as a polyelectrolyte or ionomer.

Microstructure

The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the chain.^[21] These are the elements of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Structure has a strong influence on the other properties of a polymer. For example, two samples of natural rubber may exhibit different durability, even though their molecules comprise the same monomers.

Polymer architecture

An important microstructural feature of a polymer is its architecture and shape, which relates to the way branch points lead to a deviation from a simple linear chain.^[22] A branched polymer molecule is composed of a main chain with one or more substituent side chains or branches. Types of branched polymers include star polymers, comb polymers, brush polymers, dendronized polymers, ladder polymers, and dendrimers.^[22] There exist also two-dimensional polymers which are composed of topologically planar repeat units. A polymer's architecture affects many of its physical properties including, but not limited to, solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various solvents, glass transition temperature and the size of individual polymer coils in solution. A variety of techniques may be employed for the synthesis of a polymeric material with a range of architectures, for example Living polymerization.

Chain length

A common means of expressing the length of a chain is the degree of polymerization, which quantifies the number of monomers incorporated into the chain.^[23][24] As with other molecules, a polymer's size may also be expressed in terms of molecular weight. Since synthetic polymerization techniques typically yield a statistical distribution of chain lengths, the molecular weight is expressed in terms of weighted averages. The number-average molecular weight (M_n) and weight-average molecular weight (M_w) are most commonly reported.^[25][26] The ratio of these two values (M_w / M_n) is the dispersity (Đ), which is commonly used to express the width of the molecular weight distribution.^[27]

The physical properties^[28] of polymer strongly depend on the length (or equivalently, the molecular weight) of the polymer chain.^[29] One important example of the physical consequences of the molecular weight is the scaling of the viscosity (resistance to flow) in the melt.^[30] The influence of the weight-average molecular weight (M_w) on the melt viscosity (η) depends on whether the polymer is above or below the onset of entanglements. Below the entanglement molecular weight^{[clarification needed]}, ${\displaystyle eta,sim{M_w}^1}$, whereas above the entanglement molecular weight, ${\displaystyle eta,sim{M_w}^{3.4}}$. In the latter case, increasing the polymer chain length 10-fold would increase the viscosity over 1000 times.^{[31][page needed]} Increasing chain length furthermore tends to decrease chain mobility, increase strength and toughness, and increase the glass transition temperature (T_g).^[32] This is a result of the increase in chain interactions such as Van der Waals attractions and entanglements that come with increased chain length.^[33][34] These interactions tend to fix the individual chains more strongly in position and resist deformations and matrix breakup, both at higher stresses and higher temperatures.

Monomer arrangement in copolymers

Monomers within a copolymer may be organized along the backbone in a variety of ways. A copolymer containing a controlled arrangement of monomers is called a sequence-controlled polymer.^[35] Alternating, periodic and block copolymers are simple examples of sequence-controlled polymers.

• Alternating copolymers possess two regularly alternating monomer residues:^[36] [AB]_n (structure 2 at right). An example is the equimolar copolymer of styrene and maleic anhydride formed by free-radical chain-growth polymerization.^[37] A step-growth copolymer such as Nylon 66 can also be considered a strictly alternating copolymer of diamine and diacid residues, but is often described as a homopolymer with the dimeric residue of one amine and one acid as a repeat unit.^[38]
• Periodic copolymers have monomer residue types arranged in a repeating sequence: [A_nB_m..] m being different from n.^{[citation needed]}
• Statistical copolymers have monomer residues arranged according to a statistical rule. A statistical copolymer in which the probability of finding a particular type of monomer residue at a particular point in the chain is independent of the types of surrounding monomer residue may be referred to as a truly random copolymer^[39][40] (structure 3). For example, the chain-growth copolymer of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate is random.^[37]
• Block copolymers have long sequences of different monomer units^[37][38] (structure 4). Polymers with two or three blocks of two distinct chemical species (e.g., A and B) are called diblock copolymers and triblock copolymers, respectively. Polymers with three blocks, each of a different chemical species (e.g., A, B, and C) are termed triblock terpolymers.
• Graft or grafted copolymers contain side chains or branches whose repeat units have a different composition or configuration than the main chain.^[38] (structure 5) The branches are added on to a preformed main chain macromolecule.^[37]

Tacticity

Tacticity describes the relative stereochemistry of chiral centers in neighboring structural units within a macromolecule. There are three types of tacticity: isotactic (all substituents on the same side), atactic (random placement of substituents), and syndiotactic (alternating placement of substituents).

Morphology

Polymer morphology generally describes the arrangement and microscale ordering of polymer chains in space.

Crystallinity

When applied to polymers, the term crystalline has a somewhat ambiguous usage. In some cases, the term crystalline finds identical usage to that used in conventional crystallography. For example, the structure of a crystalline protein or polynucleotide, such as a sample prepared for x-ray crystallography, may be defined in terms of a conventional unit cell composed of one or more polymer molecules with cell dimensions of hundreds of angstroms or more. A synthetic polymer may be loosely described as crystalline if it contains regions of three-dimensional ordering on atomic (rather than macromolecular) length scales, usually arising from intramolecular folding and/or stacking of adjacent chains. Synthetic polymers may consist of both crystalline and amorphous regions; the degree of crystallinity may be expressed in terms of a weight fraction or volume fraction of crystalline material. Few synthetic polymers are entirely crystalline.^[41] The crystallinity of polymers is characterized by their degree of crystallinity, ranging from zero for a completely non-crystalline polymer to one for a theoretical completely crystalline polymer. Polymers with microcrystalline regions are generally tougher (can be bent more without breaking) and more impact-resistant than totally amorphous polymers.^[42] Polymers with a degree of crystallinity approaching zero or one will tend to be transparent, while polymers with intermediate degrees of crystallinity will tend to be opaque due to light scattering by crystalline or glassy regions. For many polymers, reduced crystallinity may also be associated with increased transparency.

Chain conformation

The space occupied by a polymer molecule is generally expressed in terms of radius of gyration, which is an average distance from the center of mass of the chain to the chain itself. Alternatively, it may be expressed in terms of pervaded volume, which is the volume of solution spanned by the polymer chain and scales with the cube of the radius of gyration.^[43]

Mechanical properties

The bulk properties of a polymer are those most often of end-use interest. These are the properties that dictate how the polymer actually behaves on a macroscopic scale.

Tensile strength

The tensile strength of a material quantifies how much elongating stress the material will endure before failure.^[44][45] This is very important in applications that rely upon a polymer's physical strength or durability. For example, a rubber band with a higher tensile strength will hold a greater weight before snapping. In general, tensile strength increases with polymer chain length and crosslinking of polymer chains.

Young's modulus of elasticity

Young's modulus quantifies the elasticity of the polymer. It is defined, for small strains, as the ratio of rate of change of stress to strain. Like tensile strength, this is highly relevant in polymer applications involving the physical properties of polymers, such as rubber bands. The modulus is strongly dependent on temperature. Viscoelasticity describes a complex time-dependent elastic response, which will exhibit hysteresis in the stress-strain curve when the load is removed. Dynamic mechanical analysis or DMA measures this complex modulus by oscillating the load and measuring the resulting strain as a function of time.

Transport properties

Transport properties such as diffusivity describe how rapidly molecules move through the polymer matrix. These are very important in many applications of polymers for films and membranes.

The movement of individual macromolecules occurs by a process called reptation in which each chain molecule is constrained by entanglements with neighboring chains to move within a virtual tube. The theory of reptation can explain polymer molecule dynamics and viscoelasticity.^[46]

Phase behavior

Crystallization and melting

Depending on their chemical structures, polymers may be either semi-crystalline or amorphous. Semi-crystalline polymers can undergo crystallization and melting transitions, whereas amorphous polymers do not. In polymers, crystallization and melting do not suggest solid-liquid phase transitions, as in the case of water or other molecular fluids. Instead, crystallization and melting refer to the phase transitions between two solid states (i.e., semi-crystalline and amorphous). Crystallization occurs above the glass transition temperature (T_g) and below the melting temperature (T_m).

Glass transition

All polymers (amorphous or semi-crystalline) go through glass transitions. The glass transition temperature (T_g) is a crucial physical parameter for polymer manufacturing, processing, and use. Below T_g, molecular motions are frozen and polymers are brittle and glassy. /the-bye-bye-man-download.html. Above T_g, molecular motions are activated and polymers are rubbery and viscous. The glass transition temperature may be engineered by altering the degree of branching or crosslinking in the polymer or by the addition of plasticizers.^[47]

Whereas crystallization and melting are first-order phase transitions, the glass transition is not.^[48] The glass transition shares features of second-order phase transitions (such as discontinuity in the heat capacity, as shown in the figure), but it is generally not considered a thermodynamic transition between equilibrium states.

Mixing behavior

In general, polymeric mixtures are far less miscible than mixtures of small molecule materials. This effect results from the fact that the driving force for mixing is usually entropy, not interaction energy. In other words, miscible materials usually form a solution not because their interaction with each other is more favorable than their self-interaction, but because of an increase in entropy and hence free energy associated with increasing the amount of volume available to each component. This increase in entropy scales with the number of particles (or moles) being mixed. Since polymeric molecules are much larger and hence generally have much higher specific volumes than small molecules, the number of molecules involved in a polymeric mixture is far smaller than the number in a small molecule mixture of equal volume. The energetics of mixing, on the other hand, is comparable on a per volume basis for polymeric and small molecule mixtures. This tends to increase the free energy of mixing for polymer solutions and thereby making solvation less favorable, and thereby making the availability of concentrated solutions of polymers far rarer than those of small molecules.

Furthermore, the phase behavior of polymer solutions and mixtures is more complex than that of small molecule mixtures. Whereas most small molecule solutions exhibit only an upper critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase separation occurs with cooling, polymer mixtures commonly exhibit a lower critical solution temperature phase transition, at which phase separation occurs with heating.

In dilute solution, the properties of the polymer are characterized by the interaction between the solvent and the polymer. In a good solvent, the polymer appears swollen and occupies a large volume. In this scenario, intermolecular forces between the solvent and monomer subunits dominate over intramolecular interactions. In a bad solvent or poor solvent, intramolecular forces dominate and the chain contracts. In the theta solvent, or the state of the polymer solution where the value of the second virial coefficient becomes 0, the intermolecular polymer-solvent repulsion balances exactly the intramolecular monomer-monomer attraction. Under the theta condition (also called the Flory condition), the polymer behaves like an ideal random coil. The transition between the states is known as a coil-globule transition.

Inclusion of plasticizers

Inclusion of plasticizers tends to lower T_g and increase polymer flexibility. Plasticizers are generally small molecules that are chemically similar to the polymer and create gaps between polymer chains for greater mobility and reduced interchain interactions. A good example of the action of plasticizers is related to polyvinylchlorides or PVCs. A uPVC, or unplasticized polyvinylchloride, is used for things such as pipes. A pipe has no plasticizers in it, because it needs to remain strong and heat-resistant. Plasticized PVC is used in clothing for a flexible quality. Plasticizers are also put in some types of cling film to make the polymer more flexible.

Chemical properties

The attractive forces between polymer chains play a large part in determining polymer's properties. Because polymer chains are so long, these interchain forces are amplified far beyond the attractions between conventional molecules. Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points.

The intermolecular forces in polymers can be affected by dipoles in the monomer units. Polymers containing amide or carbonyl groups can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains; the partially positively charged hydrogen atoms in N-H groups of one chain are strongly attracted to the partially negatively charged oxygen atoms in C=O groups on another. These strong hydrogen bonds, for example, result in the high tensile strength and melting point of polymers containing urethane or urea linkages. Polyesters have dipole-dipole bonding between the oxygen atoms in C=O groups and the hydrogen atoms in H-C groups. Dipole bonding is not as strong as hydrogen bonding, so a polyester's melting point and strength are lower than Kevlar's (Twaron), but polyesters have greater flexibility.

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Ethene, however, has no permanent dipole. The attractive forces between polyethylene chains arise from weak Van der Waals forces. Molecules can be thought of as being surrounded by a cloud of negative electrons. As two polymer chains approach, their electron clouds repel one another. This has the effect of lowering the electron density on one side of a polymer chain, creating a slight positive dipole on this side. This charge is enough to attract the second polymer chain. Van der Waals forces are quite weak, however, so polyethylene can have a lower melting temperature compared to other polymers.

Optical properties

Polymers such as PMMA and HEMA:MMA are used as matrices in the gain medium of solid-state dye lasers that are also known as polymer lasers. These polymers have a high surface quality and are also highly transparent so that the laser properties are dominated by the laser dye used to dope the polymer matrix. These type of lasers, that also belong to the class of organic lasers, are known to yield very narrow linewidths which is useful for spectroscopy and analytical applications.^[49] An important optical parameter in the polymer used in laser applications is the change in refractive index with temperature also known as dn/dT. For the polymers mentioned here the (dn/dT) ~ −1.4 × 10⁻⁴ in units of K⁻¹ in the 297 ≤ T ≤ 337 K range.^[50]

Standardized nomenclature

There are multiple conventions for naming polymer substances. Many commonly used polymers, such as those found in consumer products, are referred to by a common or trivial name. The trivial name is assigned based on historical precedent or popular usage rather than a standardized naming convention. Both the American Chemical Society (ACS)^[51] and IUPAC^[52] have proposed standardized naming conventions; the ACS and IUPAC conventions are similar but not identical.^[53] Examples of the differences between the various naming conventions are given in the table below:

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In both standardized conventions, the polymers' names are intended to reflect the monomer(s) from which they are synthesized rather than the precise nature of the repeating subunit. For example, the polymer synthesized from the simple alkene ethene is called polyethylene, retaining the -ene suffix even though the double bond is removed during the polymerization process:

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Characterization

Polymer characterization spans many techniques for determining the chemical composition, molecular weight distribution, and physical properties. Select common techniques include the following:

• Size-exclusion chromatography (also called gel permeation chromatography), sometimes coupled with static light scattering, can used to determine the number-average molecular weight, weight-average molecular weight, and dispersity.
• Scattering techniques, such as static light scattering and small-angle neutron-scattering, are used to determine the dimensions (radius of gyration) of macromolecules in solution or in the melt. These techniques are also used to characterize the three-dimensional structure of microphase-separated block polymers, polymeric micelles, and other materials.
• Wide-angle X-ray scattering (also called wide-angle X-ray diffraction) is used to determine the crystalline structure of polymers (or lack thereof).
• Spectroscopy techniques, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, can be used to determine the chemical composition.
• Differential scanning calorimetry is used to characterize the thermal properties of polymers, such as the glass transition temperature, crystallization temperature, and melting temperature. The glass transition temperature can also be determined by dynamic mechanical analysis.
• Thermogravimetry is a useful technique to evaluate the thermal stability of the polymer.
• Rheology is used to characterize the flow and deformation behavior. It can be used to determine the viscosity, modulus, and other rheological properties. Rheology is also often used to determine the molecular architecture (molecular weight, molecular weight distribution, branching) and to understand how the polymer can be processed.

Degradation

Polymer degradation is a change in the properties—tensile strength, color, shape, or molecular weight—of a polymer or polymer-based product under the influence of one or more environmental factors, such as heat, light, chemicals and, in some cases, galvanic action. It is often due to the scission of polymer chain bonds via hydrolysis, leading to a decrease in the molecular mass of the polymer.

Although such changes are frequently undesirable, in some cases, such as biodegradation and recycling, they may be intended to prevent environmental pollution. Degradation can also be useful in biomedical settings. For example, a copolymer of polylactic acid and polyglycolic acid is employed in hydrolysable stitches that slowly degrade after they are applied to a wound.

The susceptibility of a polymer to degradation depends on its structure. Epoxies and chains containing aromatic functionalities are especially susceptible to UV degradation while polyesters are susceptible to degradation by hydrolysis, while polymers containing an unsaturated backbone are especially susceptible to ozone cracking. Carbon based polymers are more susceptible to thermal degradation than inorganic polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane and are therefore not ideal for most high-temperature applications. High-temperature matrices such as bismaleimides (BMI), condensation polyimides (with an O-C-N bond), triazines (with a nitrogen (N) containing ring), and blends thereof are susceptible to polymer degradation in the form of galvanic corrosion when bare carbon fiber reinforced polymer CFRP is in contact with an active metal such as aluminium in salt water environments.

The degradation of polymers to form smaller molecules may proceed by random scission or specific scission. The degradation of polyethylene occurs by random scission—a random breakage of the bonds that hold the atoms of the polymer together. When heated above 450 °C, polyethylene degrades to form a mixture of hydrocarbons. Other polymers, such as poly(alpha-methylstyrene), undergo specific chain scission with breakage occurring only at the ends. They literally unzip or depolymerize back to the constituent monomer.

The sorting of polymer waste for recycling purposes may be facilitated by the use of the Resin identification codes developed by the Society of the Plastics Industry to identify the type of plastic.

Product failure

In a finished product, such a change is to be prevented or delayed. Failure of safety-critical polymer components can cause serious accidents, such as fire in the case of cracked and degraded polymer fuel lines. Chlorine-induced cracking of acetal resin plumbing joints and polybutylene pipes has caused many serious floods in domestic properties, especially in the US in the 1990s. Traces of chlorine in the water supply attacked vulnerable polymers in the plastic plumbing, a problem which occurs faster if any of the parts have been poorly extruded or injection molded. Attack of the acetal joint occurred because of faulty molding, leading to cracking along the threads of the fitting which is a serious stress concentration.

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Polymer oxidation has caused accidents involving medical devices. One of the oldest known failure modes is ozone cracking caused by chain scission when ozone gas attacks susceptible elastomers, such as natural rubber and nitrile rubber. They possess double bonds in their repeat units which are cleaved during ozonolysis. Cracks in fuel lines can penetrate the bore of the tube and cause fuel leakage. If cracking occurs in the engine compartment, electric sparks can ignite the gasoline and can cause a serious fire. In medical use degradation of polymers can lead to changes of physical and chemical characteristics of implantable devices.^[54]

Fuel lines can also be attacked by another form of degradation: hydrolysis. Nylon 6,6 is susceptible to acid hydrolysis, and in one accident, a fractured fuel line led to a spillage of diesel into the road. If diesel fuel leaks onto the road, accidents to following cars can be caused by the slippery nature of the deposit, which is like black ice. Furthermore, the asphalt concrete road surface will suffer damage as a result of the diesel fuel dissolving the asphaltenes from the composite material, this resulting in the degradation of the asphalt surface and structural integrity of the road.

See also

• Thermal diffusivity in rubber

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Bibliography

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External links

Acs Final Chemistry Study Guide